• Before nationalism, people were loyal to their king or religion, not to a “nation.”
• Nationalism made people think of themselves as citizens of a nation, not subjects of a king.
• It was a powerful force that changed the map of Europe completely.
• Key time period covered: 1789 to early 1900s

The French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism in history.

🏛️ Steps Taken by French Revolutionaries

• Introduced “la patrie” (the fatherland) and “le citoyen” (the citizen)
• New French flag — the Tricolour — replaced the royal standard (Bourbon dynasty flag)
• Estates General renamed to the National Assembly
• New hymns composed, oaths taken, martyrs remembered — all in the name of the nation
• Centralised administrative system with uniform laws for all citizens
• Internal customs duties and dues were abolished
• A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted
• French became the common language — regional dialects discouraged

⚔️ Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804)

• Did away with all privileges based on birth
• Established equality before the law
• Secured the right to property
• Abolished the feudal system
• Freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues
• Removed guild restrictions in towns
• Improved transport and communication systems

😠 Reaction to Napoleon’s Rule

• Initially, French armies were seen as carriers of liberty
• But soon, increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription made people hostile
• This created a sense of nationalism against French rule

📜 Before Nationalism

• There were no “nation-states” in Europe in the mid-18th century
• Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons
• Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies (Habsburg, Russian, Ottoman Empires)
• The only common bond was loyalty to the emperor, not a shared national identity

👑 The Aristocracy (Old Ruling Class)

• Dominant class — both socially and politically
• Owned large estates in the countryside
• Spoke French for diplomacy and high society
• Numerically small but very powerful
• Families connected by ties of marriage across national boundaries

🏭 The New Middle Class

• Created by industrialisation (began in England in the 18th century)
• Included industrialists, businessmen, lawyers, teachers, doctors
• They were the group that shaped liberal nationalism
• Believed in abolishing aristocratic privileges and creating constitutional government

🏛️ Political Liberalism

• Government by consent (agreement of the people)
• End of autocracy and clerical privileges
• A constitution and representative government through parliament
• Equality before law
• An inviolable (cannot be taken away) right to private property

💰 Economic Liberalism — Zollverein (1834)

• Freedom of markets — no restrictions on movement of goods and capital
• In 1834, a customs union called Zollverein was formed by Prussia
• Joined by most German states
• Abolished tariff barriers (taxes on traded goods)
• Reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two
• Created a network of railways to increase mobility

⚠️ Who Was Excluded?

• The right to vote was given only to property-owning men
• Men without property and all women were excluded from political rights
• Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, women and non-propertied men fought for equal rights

After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments wanted to go back to the old system.

🤝 Congress of Vienna (1815)

• Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich
• Representatives of Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria met in Vienna
• Goal: To restore monarchies overthrown by Napoleon

📋 Decisions of the Congress of Vienna

• After 1815, fear of repression drove liberal-nationalists underground
• Secret societies were formed to train revolutionaries and spread ideas
• They opposed monarchical government and fought for liberty and freedom

👤 Giuseppe Mazzini (Italian Revolutionary)

• Born in Genoa in 1807
• Member of the secret society Carbonari
• Sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria
• Founded Young Italy (in Marseilles)
• Founded Young Europe (in Berne) — members from Poland, France, Italy, German states
• Believed that God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind

🇫🇷 Revolution of 1830 (July Revolution) — France

• The Bourbon kings (restored by Congress of Vienna) were overthrown
• Louis Philippe was installed as a constitutional monarch
• Led by liberal revolutionaries

🇧🇪 Belgium (1830)

• Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands
• Belgium became an independent nation-state

🇬🇷 Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)

• Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century
• Struggle for independence began in 1821
• Lord Byron (English poet) organised funds and went to fight — died of fever in 1824
• Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognised Greece as an independent nation

🇫🇷 Revolution of 1848 — France

• Louis Philippe was overthrown
• A republic was established based on universal male suffrage (all adult men could vote)

🏛️ Frankfurt Parliament (May 1848)

• A large number of political associations came together to vote for an all-German National Assembly
• Met at the Church of St. Paul in Frankfurt
• 831 elected deputies drafted a constitution for a German nation
• Crown offered to Friedrich Wilhelm IV (King of Prussia), but he rejected it
• He believed in the divine right of kings and refused a crown from “a people’s elected assembly”
• Parliament was dominated by middle classes who ignored workers’ and artisans’ demands
• Lost support and was ultimately forced to disband

👩 Women’s Participation

• Women formed their own political associations, founded newspapers, participated in meetings
• Despite this, they were denied suffrage (voting rights)
• At the Frankfurt Parliament, women were admitted only as observers in the visitors’ gallery

🎵 Key Contributions

🗣️ Language and Nationalism — Poland

• After Russian occupation of Poland, Polish language was forced out of schools
• Russian was imposed instead
• In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule was crushed
• Polish clergy used Polish in church gatherings as a form of resistance
• Polish language became a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance

The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.

⚠️ Causes of Hardship

• Enormous increase in population all over Europe (first half of 19th century)
• Unemployment — Population growth exceeded job growth
• Migration from rural areas to cities made cities overcrowded
• Small producers faced stiff competition from cheap machine-made goods from England
• In the countryside, feudal dues and obligations burdened the peasants
• Food shortages and rise in food prices

🧵 The Silesian Weavers’ Uprising (1845)

🇫🇷 1848 — France Revolution and Food Crisis

• Major food shortage + widespread unemployment = volatile situation
• In Paris, barricades were erected and Louis Philippe had to flee
• A National Assembly proclaimed a Republic
• Suffrage granted to all adult males above 21 years
• National workshops were set up to provide employment

📜 Before Unification

• Germany was a confederation of 39 states with varying sizes
• The Frankfurt Parliament (1848) had tried and failed to unite them through liberal initiative

⚔️ Unification by Prussia — Otto von Bismarck

⚔️ Three Wars of Unification

👑 Proclamation of German Empire

• On 18 January 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles
• Kaiser William I of Prussia became the Emperor of unified Germany
• New state emphasised modernisation of currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems
• Prussian measures became the model for the rest of Germany

📜 Before Unification

• Italy was divided into seven states — ruled by different dynasties
• Only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house
• The north was under Austrian Habsburgs
• The centre was ruled by the Pope
• The south was under Bourbon kings of Spain

👥 Key Figures of Italian Unification

🗓️ Process of Unification — Step by Step

• 1859: Cavour’s secret alliance with France → defeated Austrian forces
• 1860: Garibaldi’s Red Shirts marched into South Italy → defeated Spanish rulers
• 1861: Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed King of United Italy
• 1866: Venetia added (after Austria’s defeat by Prussia)
• 1870: Rome (under Pope) added → became capital of Italy

📋 Key Events

• 1688 — Glorious Revolution: English parliament seized power from the monarchy
• 1707 — Act of Union: England + Scotland = United Kingdom of Great Britain
  • → Scotland’s parliament was abolished
  • → British identity promoted; Scottish culture suppressed
• 1801 — Ireland incorporated: Forcibly added to United Kingdom
  • → Divided between Catholics and Protestants
  • → English language imposed; Irish culture suppressed

🏴 Symbols of New Britain

• British flag (Union Jack)
• National anthem (God Save Our Noble King)
• English language promoted as symbols of national unity
• Older nations — Scottish and Irish — survived only as subordinate partners

🔣 Symbols and Their Meanings

By the last quarter of the 19th century, nationalism took a dangerous turn — groups became intolerant and went to war with each other.

🌍 The Balkans — Hotspot of Tension

• Region comprising: Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro
• A large part was under the Ottoman Empire
• As Ottoman Empire weakened, peoples demanded independence based on nationality
• Balkan states were jealous of each other and wanted more territory
• Big powers — Russia, Germany, England, Austria-Hungary — competed to control the Balkans for trade and strategic interests
• These rivalries ultimately led to World War I (1914)