Introduction

This chapter tells the story of how modern nations were born in Europe during the 19th century. Before this time, Europe did not have “nations” as we know them today. It had kingdoms, empires, and duchies ruled by kings and emperors.

The idea that people who share a common language, history, and culture should have their own country — this idea is called nationalism. This chapter explains how this idea started during the French Revolution (1789) and then spread across Europe, leading to the formation of new nation-states like Germany, Italy, and others.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

The first clear expression of nationalism was the French Revolution of 1789.

Steps Taken to Create a Sense of Nationhood

• The concepts of “la patrie” (the fatherland) and “le citoyen” (the citizen) were introduced.
• The royal standard was replaced by a new French tricolour flag.
• The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly — elected by active citizens.
• New hymns were composed, oaths were taken, and martyrs were remembered — all in the name of the nation.
• A centralised administrative system was set up to make uniform laws for all citizens.
• Internal customs duties and dues were abolished.
• A uniform system of weights and measures was implemented.
• French became the common language of the nation (regional dialects were discouraged).

How Did the Revolution Spread Nationalism Beyond France?

• French armies moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and parts of Italy and Germany in the 1790s.
• They carried the idea of nationalism with them.

Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804):

• Eliminated all privileges based on birth.
• Established equality before the law.
• Secured the right to property.
• Abolished the feudal system.
• Abolished serfdom and manorial duties of the peasants.
• Removed guild restrictions in towns.
• Improved transport and communication systems.

Reaction to Napoleon’s Rule

• French armies were initially viewed as defenders of freedom.
• However, people soon realised that political freedom and new administrative arrangements were not always compatible.
• Increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription (compulsory military service) made people hostile.
• This created a sense of opposition and nationalism against French rule.

Ideals of Liberal Nationalism

The word “liberalism” comes from the Latin root “liber” meaning “free”.

Political Liberalism

• Government by consent (agreement of the people).
• End of autocracy and clerical privileges (special rights of the church).
• A constitution and representative government through parliament.
• Equality before law.
• An inviolable right to private property (cannot be taken away).

Economic Liberalism

• Freedom of markets — no restrictions on movement of goods and capital.
• Zollverein — a customs union founded by Prussia in 1834.

Features of the Zollverein:

• Joined by most of the German states.
• Abolished tariff barriers (taxes on traded goods).
• Reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
• Created a network of railways to increase mobility.

The Revolutionaries

• After 1815, the fear of repression (harsh punishment) drove many liberal-nationalists underground.
• In many European states, secret societies were formed to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
• They opposed monarchical forms of government and fought for liberty and freedom.

Giuseppe Mazzini (Italian Revolutionary)

• Born in Genoa in 1807.
• Became a member of the secret society Carbonari.
• In 1831, he was exiled for attempting to instigate a revolution in Liguria.
• Founded two underground societies:
  • Young Italy (in Marseilles)
  • Young Europe (in Berne) — members from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.
• Mazzini believed that God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.
• He frightened conservatives. Metternich described him as “the most dangerous enemy of our social order.”
• Mazzini’s ideas inspired movements in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Romanticism was a cultural movement that aimed to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment.

• Romantic artists and poets criticised reason and science and focused instead on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings.
• They tried to create a sense of a shared collective heritage and a common cultural past — to forge a national identity.

Key Examples

Language and Nationalism

• After the Russian occupation of Poland, the Polish language was forced out of schools, and Russian was imposed.
• In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule was crushed.
• Many members of the clergy in Poland used Polish for church gatherings and religious instruction — as a form of resistance against Russian dominance.
• The use of Polish was seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

The Making of Germany

Before Unification

• Germany was a confederation of 39 states with varying sizes.
• The Frankfurt Parliament (1848) had tried and failed to unite them through liberal initiative.

Unification by Prussia

• After 1848, the task of unification was taken up by Prussia and its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck.
• Bismarck was the architect of German unity.
• He followed a policy of “Blood and Iron” — meaning he believed in unification through military force, not speeches and votes.

Three Wars of Unification

Proclamation of the German Empire

• On 18 January 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles (France).
• Kaiser William I of Prussia became the Emperor of unified Germany.
• The process was completed by the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• The new state emphasised modernisation of currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems.
• Prussian measures and practices became the model for the rest of Germany.

Britain as a Nation

Britain’s path to becoming a nation was different from Germany and Italy.

• There was no sudden revolution or war that united Britain.
• It was a slow, gradual process — the result of a long process of parliamentary acts and agreements.

Key Events

• Before the 18th century, there was no British nation.
• England was the most powerful among the nations of the British Isles (England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland).
• In 1688, the English parliament seized power from the monarchy through the Glorious Revolution.
• The English parliament became the instrument of nation-building.

Act of Union (1707):

• United England and Scotland → formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain.
• Scotland’s parliament was abolished.
• Scotland came under England.
• British identity was promoted; Scottish culture was suppressed.

Ireland:

• Ireland was deeply split between Catholics and Protestants.
• The English helped the Protestants dominate the majority Catholics.
• Catholic revolts were suppressed.
• In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
• The English language was imposed and Irish culture was suppressed.

Symbols of the New Britain

• The British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), and the English language were promoted as symbols of national unity.
• The older nations — Scottish and Irish — survived only as subordinate partners.

Nationalism and Imperialism

By the last quarter of the 19th century, nationalism took a dangerous turn.

Key Developments

• Nationalist groups in Europe became intolerant and went to war with each other.
• The Balkans were the most dangerous hotbed of nationalist tension in Europe.

The Balkans

• The Balkans comprised modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro.
• The Ottoman Empire ruled over a significant portion of the Balkans.
• As the Ottoman Empire weakened, the people of the Balkans demanded independence based on nationality.
• Balkan states were jealous of each other and wanted to gain more territory at the expense of others.
• The situation was worsened by the rivalry of big European powers — Russia, Germany, England, Austria-Hungary — who wanted to control the Balkans for their trade and strategic interests.
• These rivalries led to a series of wars, and ultimately to the First World War (1914).

Nationalism and Imperialism Connection

• During this period, many European countries — Britain, France, Germany, etc. — used nationalism to justify conquering colonies in Asia and Africa.
• The idea of nationalism now became linked with imperialism (ruling over other countries).
• This led to increased global tensions.

Important Personalities